Presentation of my blog
My research subject rests on "the admirals of France at the beginning of the Hundred Year's War until Louis XI of France". So, I would like to do a blog on the history of the English Navy and the most famous battles in which the English fleet took part. I want to examine the development of the Navy from the Middle Ages until nowadays.Indeed, I would like to deal with the creation of the English fleet in the ninth century, its evolution, the most famous battles and, of course, what it became and its importance today.
Introduction
The White Ensign or the St George's Ensign, used by the Royal Navy
Etymologically,
the term “navy” comes from the Latin navigium
(“a vessel, a ship, a bark, a boat”), but also, from the word navie in Old
French and it means “fleet of ships”.
The navy
(or the maritime force) is the armed forces used for naval and amphibious
warfare. It uses surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines and seaborne
aviation. Naval warfare took place in and on the sea, ocean… but also large
lakes and rivers. Its function is to protect one's country’s shore, seaways… but
also to attack ennemy vessels, ports or shore installations.
The British
Armed Forces are made up of the British Army, the Royal Air Force and the Naval
Service. The latter is formed of the Royal Navy and the Royal Marines.
- The Royal Navy is a member of the British
Armed Forces and it’s the oldest armed forces of England, developed in 900. Indeed,
the Royal Navy is nicknamed the “Senior Service” by the English.
- The Royal
Marines, or The Corps of Her Majesty’s Royal Marines, are the marine corps and
amphibious infantry of the United Kingdom and it was founded in 1755. It’s the
marine infantry for the Royal Navy.
- The British
Army was founded in 1661 with Charles II of England (1630-1685) and the
Royal Air Force in 1918.
As
the Navy
was created and developed quickly, it was the most powerful navy in
the
world from the end of the seventeenth century until the Second World
War. Indeed, it
was the dominant world power with the creation of the British Empire in
the late
sixteenth and early seventeenth century. But, the Royal Navy lost its
supremacy on the sea, after the Second World War, with the development
of the United States Navy.
How this
fleet, which was the most important fleet in the world for a long time, was created? How has it evolved to become what it is today? What are the major
events in which the navy participated? How did the sailors live at sea ?
We shall see, in this blog, a brief history of the English navy, and then, some examples of naval battles between England and another country and, lastly, as life takes place at sea by using an article speaking about life at sea in the XVIIIth century.
However, no navies existed in England before the reign of king Alfred (871-899), the king of Wessex. Historians say that king Alfred was the founder of the navy in England. Indeed, his first naval action was in 882 against four Danish ships in the Stour estuary (nature reserve in Essex, east of Colchester on the estuary of the River Stour) and in 895-897, king Alfred built long ships to his own design and defeated the Danes off Essex and in the Thames estuary.
King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) established the maritime institution, the Cinque Ports, whose purpose was to mobilize merchants’ vessels against attacks by pirates and foreign enemies. The Cinque Ports coordinated five ports: Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe and Sandwich, but after, they added two ports: Rye and Winchelsea.
In 1190, Richard I the Lion Heart, King of England, introduced the Laws of Oleron (or Rules of Oleron) which was a code of maritime law originally enacted by his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine. These laws concerned the rights and responsibilities of ship captains, including discipline, pay, mutiny, sickness on board, cargoes and so on. However, it was never truly enforced.
Bellow, a website on the articles of the Laws of Oleron. There are 47 articles.
During the Hundred Year’s War, and more precisely in 1340, the battle of Sluys was the first naval battle fought entirely with ships, even if it was mainly merchant vessels commandeered by the king. This fleet was commanded by the king Edward III (1327-1377), known as “king of the seas”. It was certainly the first time that a naval expedition was sent.
In 1415, Henry V (1413-1422) oversaw an English invasion across the channel in Agincourt with 1500 ships and boats, and it was an amazing force for the time. This invasion gave rise to the most important land battles of the Hundred Year’s War : the battle of Agincourt, on Friday, 25 October 1415. During this period, King Henry V was also known for the construction of the first ship of 1,000 tons, named “Jesus” and soon followed by the construction of the ship of 1,400 tons, called “Grace Dieu” in 1418.
The Tudor period, who included the reign of king Henri VII (1485-1509), was an era of discovery and the beginning of world expansion for England. Henri VII was known as the "Father of the English Navy" for his many achievements. Indeed, in 1495, he built the first dry dock at Portsmouth and it’s a dock in which they can put ships dried up. Furthermore, he inherited seven warships from his father, Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and he increased them to 24 ships in the early part of his reign.
In 1514, the largest warship in the world at that time was constructed by Henry VII and this ship was named “Henry Grace a Dieu”. It was the first warship with heavy guns and, because of it; it was the end of archers firing on ships but also the end of hand to hand fighting.
So, with this new ship, Henri VII developed a new technique of sea warfare. In the same year, the Trinity House was established and it was an organization dedicated to the development of technologies for aid the navy, such as the lighthouses, buoys, beacons…
In 1540, Henry VII built the first naval dock in Britain at Portsmouth and, in 1546, he established the Navy Board, which created the office of Admiralty. It controlled the administrative aspects of the navy and this administration stayed unaltered for 300 years.
The "Henry Grace a Dieu" was contemporaneous with Mary Rose whose it was a warship of the English Tudor navy of King Henry VIII.
In 1660, the British Navy became the Royal Navy after the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II (1660-1685). In 1661, Sir William Penn and Samuel Pepys established the Naval Discipline Act (35 articles) which included the Articles of War and they founded the Royal Navy by statute. In 1664, the Royal Marines were inaugurated but they were really created in 1755 such as marine infantry for the Royal Navy.
Charles II founded the Royal Society of London to encourage the scientific knowledge of astronomy, biology, geographical exploration, navigation and seamanship.
During the eighteenth century, several important maritime progress were made :
- Indeed, the Board of Longitude (or the Commissioners for the Discovery of the Longitude at sea) was a British Government body formed in 1714 who offered a prize intended to encourage innovators to solve the problem of finding the longitude at sea. The solution was found by John Harrison and his marines chronometers.
- En 1751, after having been rated, the warships were divided into six divisions depending on the number of their guns: in the first category, the warships having over 100 guns and in the sixth category, those having less than 32 guns.
- Furthermore, the Admirals Howe, Kempenfelt and Knowles also developed the semaphore coded communication system which uses the signaling with 28 flags. They served to relay messages from a station to another. But, the semaphore was really developed in 1796 by Sir Home Popham and Reverend Lord George Murray. Fifteen semaphore stations, at sea and on land, were installed from London to Deal and, thanks to his success; ten new stations were built between London and Portsmouth.
- In 1798, the introduction of lemon juice, on board of ships, to prevent scurvy was compulsory.
- In 1798 again, the Admiralty’s Hydrographic Department was established and the first Admiralty chart was created by Alexander Dalrymple in 1801. These charts again form the basis of global navigation at sea today. En 1819, the Admiralty allowed the sale of these charts to the Merchant Marine and since, the ships of world have been navigating entirely on British Admiralty charts.
The nineteenth century saw the beginning of Arctic exploration.
The Admiralty became the single organization responsible for every aspect of the Navy in 1832 when the Navy Board was merged into it.
En 1853, the continuous service in the navy was introduced under which seamen could make a career in the navy and earn a pension at the end of these careers. It was the end of impressment as a means of recruitment.
The HMS Warrior, the first ironclad warship, was built in 1860 by the Royal Navy in response to the first ironclad warship, the French La Gloire, launched a year earlier.
From the twentieth century, the submarine was developed. For the World War I, 74 submarines have been built.
In 1906, the first all big-gun battleship HMS Dreadnought was built, becoming the most powerful ship in the world.
In 1912, the Royal Naval Air Service was formed and in 1917, HMS Argus was the first ship built to enable an aircraft to take off and land with an unobstructed deck over the length of the ship.
In 1923, they built the HMS Hermès who was the first designated aircraft carrier and the Fleet Air Arm began in 1924.
_off_Yantai_China_c1931.jpeg)
The last part of the century was seen the development of nuclear submarines and missiles.
We shall see, in this blog, a brief history of the English navy, and then, some examples of naval battles between England and another country and, lastly, as life takes place at sea by using an article speaking about life at sea in the XVIIIth century.
A brief history about the British navy : dates, events and well-known figures.
The navy was really created about the ninth century but they have found traces of a former “navy”. Indeed, sophisticated warships were built from the Sixth century because Saxon boat graveyards were found at Snape (about 550) and Sutton Hoo (about 625). A ship burial or boat grave was a special tomb used in a funeral ceremony in which a boat is used as a receptacle for the deceased and his possessions. This technique of burial was used by the Anglo-Saxons, Merovingians, Vikings and sometimes by the Egyptians.
Photo : British Museum
The picture above shows the archaeological site of Sutton Hoo (VIIth century).It was a photo of the excavations in 1939 and they discovered the funeral chamber built in the middle of the ship. In this ship, they found a great treasure : helmets, exotic items, coins in gold and silver... Sutton Hoo is one of the greatest archaeological discoveries in England.
However, no navies existed in England before the reign of king Alfred (871-899), the king of Wessex. Historians say that king Alfred was the founder of the navy in England. Indeed, his first naval action was in 882 against four Danish ships in the Stour estuary (nature reserve in Essex, east of Colchester on the estuary of the River Stour) and in 895-897, king Alfred built long ships to his own design and defeated the Danes off Essex and in the Thames estuary.
King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) established the maritime institution, the Cinque Ports, whose purpose was to mobilize merchants’ vessels against attacks by pirates and foreign enemies. The Cinque Ports coordinated five ports: Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe and Sandwich, but after, they added two ports: Rye and Winchelsea.
In 1190, Richard I the Lion Heart, King of England, introduced the Laws of Oleron (or Rules of Oleron) which was a code of maritime law originally enacted by his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine. These laws concerned the rights and responsibilities of ship captains, including discipline, pay, mutiny, sickness on board, cargoes and so on. However, it was never truly enforced.
Bellow, a website on the articles of the Laws of Oleron. There are 47 articles.
During the Hundred Year’s War, and more precisely in 1340, the battle of Sluys was the first naval battle fought entirely with ships, even if it was mainly merchant vessels commandeered by the king. This fleet was commanded by the king Edward III (1327-1377), known as “king of the seas”. It was certainly the first time that a naval expedition was sent.
In 1415, Henry V (1413-1422) oversaw an English invasion across the channel in Agincourt with 1500 ships and boats, and it was an amazing force for the time. This invasion gave rise to the most important land battles of the Hundred Year’s War : the battle of Agincourt, on Friday, 25 October 1415. During this period, King Henry V was also known for the construction of the first ship of 1,000 tons, named “Jesus” and soon followed by the construction of the ship of 1,400 tons, called “Grace Dieu” in 1418.
The Tudor period, who included the reign of king Henri VII (1485-1509), was an era of discovery and the beginning of world expansion for England. Henri VII was known as the "Father of the English Navy" for his many achievements. Indeed, in 1495, he built the first dry dock at Portsmouth and it’s a dock in which they can put ships dried up. Furthermore, he inherited seven warships from his father, Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and he increased them to 24 ships in the early part of his reign.
In 1514, the largest warship in the world at that time was constructed by Henry VII and this ship was named “Henry Grace a Dieu”. It was the first warship with heavy guns and, because of it; it was the end of archers firing on ships but also the end of hand to hand fighting.
The picture above depicts The Henry Grace a Dieu, painted in 1546.
So, with this new ship, Henri VII developed a new technique of sea warfare. In the same year, the Trinity House was established and it was an organization dedicated to the development of technologies for aid the navy, such as the lighthouses, buoys, beacons…
In 1540, Henry VII built the first naval dock in Britain at Portsmouth and, in 1546, he established the Navy Board, which created the office of Admiralty. It controlled the administrative aspects of the navy and this administration stayed unaltered for 300 years.
The "Henry Grace a Dieu" was contemporaneous with Mary Rose whose it was a warship of the English Tudor navy of King Henry VIII.
In 1660, the British Navy became the Royal Navy after the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II (1660-1685). In 1661, Sir William Penn and Samuel Pepys established the Naval Discipline Act (35 articles) which included the Articles of War and they founded the Royal Navy by statute. In 1664, the Royal Marines were inaugurated but they were really created in 1755 such as marine infantry for the Royal Navy.
Charles II founded the Royal Society of London to encourage the scientific knowledge of astronomy, biology, geographical exploration, navigation and seamanship.
During the eighteenth century, several important maritime progress were made :
- Indeed, the Board of Longitude (or the Commissioners for the Discovery of the Longitude at sea) was a British Government body formed in 1714 who offered a prize intended to encourage innovators to solve the problem of finding the longitude at sea. The solution was found by John Harrison and his marines chronometers.
Harrison's first sea clock (he had needed 5 years for make it)
Harrison created 5 marine chronometers, more and more sophisticated.
It was the fifth try.
- Furthermore, the Admirals Howe, Kempenfelt and Knowles also developed the semaphore coded communication system which uses the signaling with 28 flags. They served to relay messages from a station to another. But, the semaphore was really developed in 1796 by Sir Home Popham and Reverend Lord George Murray. Fifteen semaphore stations, at sea and on land, were installed from London to Deal and, thanks to his success; ten new stations were built between London and Portsmouth.
- In 1798, the introduction of lemon juice, on board of ships, to prevent scurvy was compulsory.
- In 1798 again, the Admiralty’s Hydrographic Department was established and the first Admiralty chart was created by Alexander Dalrymple in 1801. These charts again form the basis of global navigation at sea today. En 1819, the Admiralty allowed the sale of these charts to the Merchant Marine and since, the ships of world have been navigating entirely on British Admiralty charts.
The nineteenth century saw the beginning of Arctic exploration.
The Admiralty became the single organization responsible for every aspect of the Navy in 1832 when the Navy Board was merged into it.
En 1853, the continuous service in the navy was introduced under which seamen could make a career in the navy and earn a pension at the end of these careers. It was the end of impressment as a means of recruitment.
The HMS Warrior, the first ironclad warship, was built in 1860 by the Royal Navy in response to the first ironclad warship, the French La Gloire, launched a year earlier.
It is the HMS Warrior who has been restored (1979-1987).
From the twentieth century, the submarine was developed. For the World War I, 74 submarines have been built.
HMS Holland 1, the first-ever submarine to be commissioned by the Royal Navy.
In 1906, the first all big-gun battleship HMS Dreadnought was built, becoming the most powerful ship in the world.
HMS Dreadnought (1906)
In 1912, the Royal Naval Air Service was formed and in 1917, HMS Argus was the first ship built to enable an aircraft to take off and land with an unobstructed deck over the length of the ship.
HMS Argus
In 1923, they built the HMS Hermès who was the first designated aircraft carrier and the Fleet Air Arm began in 1924.
_off_Yantai_China_c1931.jpeg)
HMS Hermes off Yantai, China, circa 1931
The last part of the century was seen the development of nuclear submarines and missiles.
Further details
For know more details, we can watch 2 videos that recount the history of the navy from 1806 until nowadays.
These videos
are presented by the Royal Highness Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Indeed, this
prince was born in 1960 and he is one of sons (he’s the third child) of Queen Elisabeth II and the Prince consort, Philip. In 1979, Prince Andrew
enlisted in the Royal Navy and, in 1981, in the Royal Air Force. He piloted a
helicopter during the Falklands War in 1982. Thanks to this service records,
the Prince Andrew became Lieutenant Commander, but in 2001, decided to leave
the navy. However, he’s appointed Captain honorary of the Royal Navy.
So, it’s
him who presented, partially, the video on the history of the navy.
The first video concerns the navy from 1806 until 1918 :
Transcription of the first minutes :
“Prince
Andrew :
The few
exceptions the nineteenth century would be time advantage mastery from the
world navy. The napoleons wars (…) and the police empire enjoy appeared the
peace, expansion and standing economic supremacy.
Tell lodge an
elevation would be a new (…) break ship building, changing the future the world
navies great (…) worlds.
Present
boat is represented to the vast (…). Would have you got the new ages the war in
England or (…) France introduced an (…) and shock wave the cross (…).
World navy (…)
elevation the rives of the form the largest, fastest, (…) the world (…) ever
seen."
The second video concerns the navy from 1919 until nowadays :
Some examples of naval battles
My dissertation rests on the medieval period. Thus, the examples will concern this period. I am going to give 2 examples :Battle of Sluys (1340)
A miniature of the battle from Jean Froissart's Chronicles (14th century)
In the
Middle Ages, one of important battles is the battle of Sluys (also called
Battle of l’Ecluse) on 24 June 1340. This naval battle was decisive in the
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between the French fleet, commanded by Breton
knight Hugues Quiéret, admiral for the king of France, and the English navy
with the English king, Edouard III.
It took
place in front of the town of Newmarket or Sluis, in the inlet between West
Flanders and Zeeland. Today, it would be in front of the estuary of Zwin, on
the Belgian-Dutch border. In the middle of the fourteenth century, it was an
open roadstead capable of receiving several large fleets, but, nowadays, this
roadstead is completely silted up and there are no boat (it’s a nature
reserve).
According
to a letter of the English king, Edouard III to his son, Edward, the Black
Prince, the French fleet contained 190 sails but the French sources say rather
213 boats. These boats would have been prepared for an invasion of England. As regards
the English fleet, the king Edward III sailed with 200 sails and he was joined by
his admiral for the North Sea, Sir Robert Morley, with 50 other ships.
The fight
was a long succession of hand-to-hand fight, boarding, or the repelling of
boarders. The English combatants were succeeding to go on board, to attack the
enemies and to seize the rival boats. At the end of the battle, the king Edward
III annihilated the fleet of the French king, Philip VI of France.
Nethertheless, the French were successful to wound the English king with an
arrow or a bolt during the battle.
Other miniature of the battle : close combats.
In spite of
the French defeat, king Edouard III wrote, in the letter to his son, that
the enemy made a noble defense "all that day and the night after".
This battle
was very important for the war. Why?
After the
battle of Sluys, the English navy won the fight and the most of France’s fleet
was destroyed. So, it means that waging war in England was impossible for France because it didn’t have a fleet and it means also that the rest of the
war will take place in the France and not in England. Most battles will be in France.
However,
the English weren't always the winners in these naval battles. For example, the battle of La Rochelle took
place on 22 and 23 June 1372 between a Castilian and French fleet commanded by
the Genoese born Ambrosio Boccanegra and an English convoy commanded by John
Hastings, second Earl of Pembroke.
Battle of La Rochelle (1372)
The naval battle of La Rochelle, Chronicle of Jean Froissart.
After the Treaty
of Brétigny, signed on 9 May 1360, the English had the control of the Southwest
of France, in particular La Rochelle.
During the Hundred
Year’s War, the English tactics was the English expeditions, called the
“chevauchée”. It’s a raiding method of medieval warfare for weakening the
enemy, focusing mainly on causing havoc, burning and pillaging enemy territory,
in order to reduce the productivity of a region; as opposed to siege warfare or
wars of conquest. The king, Charles V of France, preferred the Fabian strategy against
the “English chevauchée”. This tactic consists in creating a void in front of
the enemy by stocking men and properties in out of reach places, but without
destroying the country. Charles V of France said « Mieux vaut pays
pillé que pays perdu ».
So, he
avoided the big pitched battles in the countryside that saw the rout of the
French army (Crécy, Poitiers…) and he preferred the siege warfare by
recapturing all strongholds, one by one.
The England
had 36 naves and 14 transport ships. The Castilian fleet had only 22 castillan
galleys.
In spite of
an English numeric superiority and thanks to a trick of Boccanegra who
persuaded the English that the Castilian and French fleet were at English’s
mercy, a lot of English ships were sent to the bottom and even the ship which contained the war chest to pay 3000 mercenaries for a year.
Furthermore,
the English naves had, on board, the staff and the better elements of the
English army who were arrested in Spain (Santander): John Hastings, second Earl
of Pembroke, 400 knights and 8000 soldiers.
This naval
battle had majors consequences. The English lost their superiority on
the sea, they had to abandon their alliance with the Portuguese against the
Castilians, and they would have difficulty on the continent for lack of supply
because the French and Castilian fleet had also destroyed transport ships.
France took its revenge on the battle of Sluys. Furthermore, the French people
took back, little by little, the control of lands given up by the treaty of
Brétigny.
These two battles were representative of the way of fighting at the time (hand-to-hand fight, boarding, or the repelling of
boarders, archery...). These techniques will be abandoned from 1514.
Miniature of the battle of La Rochelle.
Life at sea : "Life at Sea in the Royal Navy of the 18th Century" (article write by Andrew Lambert for the BBC).
I am going to use the article "Life at Sea in the Royal Navy of the 18th Century" written by Andrew Lambert for the website of the BBC.
“The
enduring notion of Captain Cook's navy is one of blood, sweat and tears.”
An English historian,
Andrew Lambert, the author of the article, has made a travel towards the
Australia on a replica of the Cook’s ship, with about the same ways of living
of the sailors at the eighteenth century. He claims that the life on board, in
the XVIIIth century, was rather decent. So, he uses his personal experience of
this travel on the replica of the Endeavour
(Cook’s ship) to show the differences between his experience on board of the
replica and the negative images that we can have on the life on board at the
eighteenth century.
A life of suffering ?
The life at
sea was often depicted such as a jail or a floating concentration camp but with
two dangers in more: the drowning and the disease. Furthermore, the crew would
be famished, beat and terrorized. However, the historians give a different
picture of this life at sea, even if some people think that there must be an
element of truth in this negative vision of the life on a boat.
First, the
food.
During his
modern-day voyage, the meals consisted of, for Andrew Lambert, like for the
sailors of the eighteenth century, salty meats, tough biscuits and sauerkrauts.
For Andrew Lambert, the passengers of boat could not consider it such as an
adequate meal but, for the sailors of XVIIIth century, it was luxury (a hot
meal in sufficiency…). This food was served with beers and rums for the
sailors.
The main
preoccupation of the sailors was, of course, their health because one of the
most important threats, for a long travel at sea, was a disease, potentially
inevitable, the scurvy, due to a lack of vitamin C. The Royal Navy tried to
find a cure for this disease and, during the first travel of Cook, a lot of
cure was tried (sauerkrauts, extract of malt…).
Discipline and punishment
The Captain
Cook obliged his sailors to do eat theirs rations and to keep the boat, the
crew and the clothes clean to avoid the diseases (the old disease like the
dysentery or the typhus and the new diseases at that time like the malaria and
the yellow fever in the tropical climates). Cook didn’t hesitate to take
disciplinary measures.
In the
modern ages, discipline and punishment were bound but, in the XVIIIth century,
the discipline meant only a good organization and not a physical punishment.
However, some sailors, all the same, were punished if they didn’t carry out
their duties or if they had put the boat or the crew in danger (to fall asleep
on duty, to refuse to obey the orders…).
Some naval
punishments were legendary: the flogging with the cat-o’-nine-tails or the
suspension.
The
cat-o’-nine-tails is a whip with several lashes, used like a implement for
severe physical punishment, notably in the Royal Navy and Army of the
United-Kingdom.
Nevertheless,
there were no prison and no financial restriction. Moreover, the death sentence
was rare because the sailors were less numerous and they didn’t wish to reduce
their number.
The
punishments took place in front of all the crew so that the culprits don’t it again
and so that the others sailors don’t try to commit an offense (it was as a
preventive measure).
Professional sailors
The boys
became sailors from the age of sixteen years. Later, they could navigate on the
sea during ten years, then, they could settle down on the coast for working. In
spite of the charm of this job (freedom, no responsibility…), few sailors
continued to navigate.
During a
war, the navy needed of 60 000 men, so, she requisitioned these in the
merchant ships… However, it always wasn’t enough, thus, the navy appealed for
the landlubbers who were attracted by the pay… The sailors had the most
important positions (the navigation…) et the landlubbers were in charge of the
rest (the transport…).
In the
XVIIIth century, the sailors were part of the elite of the working class with
their clothes, unique and colourful, their
coiffures, their jewels and, after their travels in Polynesia, their tattoos.
Patronage
The naval
officers always weren’t of the high class and some were “humble”. They happened
at the rank of lieutenants thanks to the competitions on the conduct of a ship
and they had to serve at least 6 years on a boat.
They became
commander, then captain thanks to their merits, their courage and thanks to a
sponsorship. Next, the captains became admirals thanks to their seniority.
The
sponsorship, in the XVIIIth century, was an essential act if the sailors wanted
to rise in their careers.
Women and children
During many
years, they believed that the women weren’t accepted on board but it was a Victorian
invention. Indeed, a lot of women were aboard of the ships as women of small
officers and they had important roles (medical treatment of supplies, treatment
of ammunitions).
A lot of
children were born in the warships and a lot of women joined secretly beneath
male identities.
A lot of interesting websites :
- http://www.royal-navy.org/
- http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/